594 lines
21 KiB
Text
594 lines
21 KiB
Text
% Copyright 2005-2017 Cisco Systems, Inc.
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%
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% Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
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% you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
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% You may obtain a copy of the License at
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%
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% http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
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%
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% Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
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% distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
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% WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
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% See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
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% limitations under the License.
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\chapter{Binding Forms\label{CHPTBINDING}}
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This chapter describes {\ChezScheme} extensions to the set of Revised$^6$
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Report binding forms.
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See Chapter~\ref{TSPL:CHPTBINDING} of {\TSPLFOUR} or the Revised$^6$ Report
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for a description of standard binding forms.
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\section{Definitions\label{SECTDEFINITIONS}}
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A \index{definitions}definition in Revised$^6$ Report Scheme is a
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\index{\scheme{define}}\index{variable definition}variable definition,
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\index{\scheme{define-syntax}}\index{keyword definition}keyword
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definition, or derived definition, i.e., a syntactic extension that
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expands into a definition.
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In addition, the forms within a
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\index{\scheme{begin}}\scheme{begin}
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expression appearing after a sequence
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of definitions is spliced onto the end of the sequence of definitions
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so that definitions at the front of the \scheme{begin} expression
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are treated as if they were part of the outer sequence of definitions.
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A \index{\scheme{let-syntax}}\scheme{let-syntax} or
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\index{\scheme{letrec-syntax}}\scheme{letrec-syntax} form
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is treated similarly, so that definitions at the front of the body
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are treated as if they were part of the outer sequence of definitions,
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albeit scoped where the bindings of the \scheme{let-syntax} or
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\scheme{letrec-syntax} form are visible.
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{\ChezScheme} extends the set of definitions to include
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\index{modules}\index{\scheme{module}}\scheme{module} forms,
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\index{\scheme{import}}\scheme{import} forms,
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\index{\scheme{import-only}}\scheme{import-only} forms,
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\index{\scheme{meta}}\scheme{meta} definitions, and
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\index{\scheme{alias}}\scheme{alias} forms, although the
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\scheme{module}, \scheme{import}, \scheme{import-only},
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\scheme{meta}, and \scheme{alias} keywords are not available
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in a library or RNRS top-level program unless the
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\scheme{scheme} library is included in the library or
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top-level programs imports.
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These forms are described in Chapter~\ref{CHPTSYNTAX}.
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In Revised$^6$ Report Scheme, definitions can appear at the front of
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a \scheme{lambda} or similar body (e.g., a \scheme{let} or \scheme{letrec}
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body), at the front of a library body, or intermixed with expressions
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within an RNRS top-level program body.
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In {\ChezScheme}, definitions may also be used in the
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interactive top-level, i.e., they can be intermixed with expressions in
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the REPL or in program text to be loaded from a file
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via \index{\scheme{load}}\scheme{load} (Section~\ref{SECTMISCCOMPILEEVAL}).
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The Revised$^6$ Report does not mandate the existence nor specify the
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semantics of an interactive top-level, nor of a \scheme{load}
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procedure.
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The macro expander uses the same two-pass algorithm for expanding
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top-level \scheme{begin} expressions as it uses for a \scheme{lambda},
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\scheme{library}, or top-level program body.
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(This algorithm is described in Section~\ref{TSPL:SECTSYNTAXDEFINITIONS} of
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{\TSPLFOUR}.) As a result,
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\schemedisplay
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(begin
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(define-syntax a (identifier-syntax 3))
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(define x a))
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\endschemedisplay
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and
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\schemedisplay
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(begin
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(define x a)
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(define-syntax a (identifier-syntax 3)))
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\endschemedisplay
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both result in the giving \scheme{x} the value 3,
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even though an unbound variable reference to \scheme{a} would result if
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the two forms within the latter \scheme{begin} expression were run
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independently at top level.
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Similarly, the \scheme{begin} form produced by a use of
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\schemedisplay
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(define-syntax define-constant
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(syntax-rules ()
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[(_ x e)
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(begin
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(define t e)
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(define-syntax x (identifier-syntax t)))]))
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\endschemedisplay
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and the \scheme{begin} form produced by a use of
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\schemedisplay
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(define-syntax define-constant
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(syntax-rules ()
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[(_ x e)
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(begin
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(define-syntax x (identifier-syntax t))
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(define t e))]))
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\endschemedisplay
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are equivalent.
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The Revised$^6$ Report specifies that internal variable definitions be
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treated like \scheme{letrec*}, while earlier reports required internal
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variable definitions to be treated like \scheme{letrec}.
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By default, {\ChezScheme} implements the Revised$^6$ Report semantics for
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internal variable definitions, as for all other things, but this behavior
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may be overridden via the \scheme{internal-defines-as-letrec*} parameter.
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%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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\entryheader
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\formdef{internal-defines-as-letrec*}{\categorythreadparameter}{internal-defines-as-letrec*}
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\listlibraries
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\endentryheader
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\noindent
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When this parameter is set to \scheme{#t} (the default), internal variable
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definitions are evaluated using \scheme{letrec*} semantics.
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It may be set to \scheme{#f} to revert to the \scheme{letrec} semantics
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for internal variable definitions, for backward compatibility.
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\section{Multiple-value Definitions}
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%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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\noskipentryheader
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\formdef{define-values}{\categorysyntax}{(define-values \var{formals} \var{expr})}
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\listlibraries
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\endnoskipentryheader
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A \scheme{define-values} form is a definition and can appear anywhere
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other definitions can appear.
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It is like a \scheme{define} form but permits an arbitrary formals list
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(like \scheme{lambda}) on the left-hand side.
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It evaluates \var{expr} and binds the variables appearing in \var{formals}
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to the resulting values, in the same manner as the formal parameters of a
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procedure are bound to its arguments.
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\schemedisplay
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(let ()
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(define-values (x y) (values 1 2))
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(list x y)) ;=> (1 2)
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(let ()
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(define-values (x y . z) (values 1 2 3 4))
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(list x y z)) ;=> (1 2 (3 4))
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\endschemedisplay
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A \scheme{define-values} form expands into a sequence of definitions, the
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first for a hidden temporary bound to a data structure holding the values
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returned by \var{expr} and the remainder binding each of the formals to
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the corresponding value or list of values, extracted from the data
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structure via a reference to the temporary.
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Because the temporary must be defined before the other variables are
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defined, this works for internal \scheme{define-values} forms only if
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\scheme{internal-defines-as-letrec*} is set to the default value
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\scheme{#t}.
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\section{Recursive Bindings}
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%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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\noskipentryheader
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\formdef{rec}{\categorysyntax}{(rec \var{var} \var{expr})}
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\returns value of \var{expr}
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\listlibraries
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\endnoskipentryheader
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\noindent
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The syntactic form \scheme{rec} creates a \index{recursive object}recursive object from \var{expr} by
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establishing a binding of \var{var} within \var{expr} to the value of \var{expr}.
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In essence, it is a special case of \scheme{letrec} for self-recursive objects.
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This form is useful for creating recursive objects (especially procedures)
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that do not depend on external variables for the recursion, which are
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sometimes undesirable because the external bindings can change.
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For example, a recursive procedure defined at top level depends on the value
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of the top-level variable given as its name.
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If the value of this variable should change, the meaning of the procedure
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itself would change.
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If the procedure is defined instead with \scheme{rec}, its meaning is independent
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of the variable to which it is bound.
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\schemedisplay
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(map (rec sum
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(lambda (x)
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(if (= x 0)
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0
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(+ x (sum (- x 1))))))
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'(0 1 2 3 4 5)) ;=> (0 1 3 6 10 15)
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(define cycle
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(rec self
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(list (lambda () self))))
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(eq? ((car cycle)) cycle) ;=> #t
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\endschemedisplay
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\noindent
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The definition below expands \scheme{rec} in terms of \scheme{letrec}.
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\schemedisplay
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(define-syntax rec
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(syntax-rules ()
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[(_ x e) (letrec ((x e)) x)]))
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\endschemedisplay
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\section{Fluid Bindings}
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%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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\noskipentryheader
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\formdef{fluid-let}{\categorysyntax}{(fluid-let ((\var{var} \var{expr}) \dots) \var{body_1} \var{body_2} \dots)}
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\returns the values of the body \scheme{\var{body_1} \var{body_2} \dots}
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\listlibraries
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\endentryheader
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\noindent
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\index{fluid binding}\index{assignments}The syntactic form \scheme{fluid-let}
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provides a way to temporarily assign values to a set of variables.
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The new values are in effect only during the evaluation of the
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body of the \scheme{fluid-let} expression.
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The scopes of the variables are not determined by \scheme{fluid-let}; as with
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\scheme{set!}, the variables must be bound at top level or by an enclosing
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\scheme{lambda} or other binding form.
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It is possible, therefore, to control the scope of a variable with
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\scheme{lambda} or \scheme{let} while establishing a temporary
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value with \scheme{fluid-let}.
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Although it is similar in appearance to \scheme{let}, its operation is more
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like that of \scheme{set!}.
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Each \var{var} is assigned, as with \scheme{set!}, to the value of the
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corresponding \var{expr} within the body \scheme{\var{body_1} \var{body_2} \dots}.
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Should the body
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exit normally or by invoking a continuation made outside of the body
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(see \scheme{call/cc}), the values in effect before the bindings were changed
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are restored.
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Should control return back to the body by the invocation of a continuation
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created within the body, the bindings are changed once again to the values
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in effect when the body last exited.
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Fluid bindings are most useful for
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maintaining variables that must be shared by a group of procedures.
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Upon entry to the group of procedures, the shared variables are fluidly
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bound to a new set of initial values so that on exit the original values
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are restored automatically.
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In this way, the group of procedures itself can be reentrant; it may call
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itself directly or indirectly without affecting the values of its shared
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variables.
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\index{special bindings (in Lisp)}Fluid bindings are similar to
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\emph{special} bindings in Common Lisp~\cite{Steele:common}, except that
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(1) there is a single namespace for both lexical and fluid bindings, and
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(2) the scope of a fluidly bound variable is not necessarily global.
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\schemedisplay
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(let ([x 3])
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(+ (fluid-let ([x 5])
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x)
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x)) ;=> 8
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(let ([x 'a])
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(letrec ([f (lambda (y) (cons x y))])
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(fluid-let ([x 'b])
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(f 'c)))) ;=> (b . c)
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(let ([x 'a])
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(call/cc
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(lambda (k)
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(fluid-let ([x 'b])
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(letrec ([f (lambda (y) (k '*))])
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(f '*)))))
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x) ;=> a
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\endschemedisplay
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\noindent
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\scheme{fluid-let} may be defined in terms of \scheme{dynamic-wind} as follows.
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\schemedisplay\label{defn:fluid-let}
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(define-syntax fluid-let
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(lambda (x)
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(syntax-case x ()
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[(_ () b1 b2 ...) #'(let () b1 b2 ...)]
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[(_ ((x e) ...) b1 b2 ...)
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(andmap identifier? #'(x ...))
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(with-syntax ([(y ...) (generate-temporaries #'(x ...))])
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#'(let ([y e] ...)
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(let ([swap (lambda ()
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(let ([t x]) (set! x y) (set! y t))
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...)])
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(dynamic-wind swap (lambda () b1 b2 ...) swap))))])))
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\endschemedisplay
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\section{Top-Level Bindings\label{SECTBINDINGTOPLEVEL}}
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The procedures described in this section allow the direct manipulation
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of \index{top-level values}top-level bindings for variables
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and keywords.
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They are intended primarily to support the definition of interpreters
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or compilers for Scheme in Scheme but may be used to access or alter
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top-level bindings anywhere within a program whether at top level or not.
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%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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\entryheader
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\formdef{define-top-level-value}{\categoryprocedure}{(define-top-level-value \var{symbol} \var{obj})}
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\formdef{define-top-level-value}{\categoryprocedure}{(define-top-level-value \var{symbol} \var{obj} \var{env})}
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\returns unspecified
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\listlibraries
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\endentryheader
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\noindent
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\scheme{define-top-level-value} is used to establish a binding
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for the variable named by \var{symbol} to the value \var{obj}
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in the environment \var{env}.
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If \var{env} is not provided, it defaults to the
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value of \scheme{interaction-environment}, i.e., the
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top-level evaluation environment
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(Section~\ref{SECTMISCENVIRONMENTS}).
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An exception is raised with condition type \scheme{&assertion} if
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\var{env} is not mutable.
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A call to \scheme{define-top-level-value} is similar to a top-level
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\index{\scheme{define}}\scheme{define} form, except that a call to
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\scheme{define-top-level-value} need not occur at top-level and
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the variable for which the binding is to be established can be
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determined at run time, as can the environment.
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\schemedisplay
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(begin
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(define-top-level-value 'xyz "hi")
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xyz) ;=> "hi"
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(let ([var 'xyz])
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(define-top-level-value var "mom")
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(list var xyz)) ;=> (xyz "mom")
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\endschemedisplay
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%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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\entryheader
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\formdef{set-top-level-value!}{\categoryprocedure}{(set-top-level-value! \var{symbol} \var{obj})}
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\formdef{set-top-level-value!}{\categoryprocedure}{(set-top-level-value! \var{symbol} \var{obj} \var{env})}
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\returns unspecified
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\listlibraries
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\endentryheader
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\noindent
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\index{assignments}\scheme{set-top-level-value!} assigns
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the variable named by \var{symbol} to the value \var{obj}
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in the environment \var{env}.
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If \var{env} is not provided, it defaults to the
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value of \scheme{interaction-environment}, i.e., the
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top-level evaluation environment
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(Section~\ref{SECTMISCENVIRONMENTS}).
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An exception is raised with condition type \scheme{&assertion} if the
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identifier named by \var{symbol} is not defined as a variable in \var{env}
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or if the variable or environment is not mutable.
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\scheme{set-top-level-value!} is similar to
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\index{\scheme{set!}}\scheme{set!} when \scheme{set!}
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is used on top-level variables except that the variable to be assigned
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can be determined at run time, as can the environment.
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\schemedisplay
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(let ([v (let ([cons list])
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(set-top-level-value! 'cons +)
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(cons 3 4))])
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(list v (cons 3 4))) ;=> ((3 4) 7)
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\endschemedisplay
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%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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\entryheader
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\formdef{top-level-value}{\categoryprocedure}{(top-level-value \var{symbol})}
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\formdef{top-level-value}{\categoryprocedure}{(top-level-value \var{symbol} \var{env})}
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\returns the top-level value of the variable named by \var{symbol} in \var{env}
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\listlibraries
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\endentryheader
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\noindent
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If \var{env} is not provided, it defaults to the
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value of \scheme{interaction-environment}, i.e., the
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top-level evaluation environment
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(Section~\ref{SECTMISCENVIRONMENTS}).
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An exception is raised with condition type \scheme{&assertion} if the
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identifier named by \var{symbol} is not defined as a variable in \var{env}.
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\scheme{top-level-value} is similar to a top-level variable reference
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except that the variable to be referenced can be determined at run time,
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as can the environment.
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\schemedisplay
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(let ([cons +])
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(list (cons 3 4)
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((top-level-value 'cons) 3 4))) ;=> (7 (3 . 4))
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(define e (copy-environment (scheme-environment)))
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(define-top-level-value 'pi 3.14 e)
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(top-level-value 'pi e) ;=> 3.14
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(set-top-level-value! 'pi 3.1416 e)
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(top-level-value 'pi e) ;=> 3.1416
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\endschemedisplay
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%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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\entryheader
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\formdef{top-level-bound?}{\categoryprocedure}{(top-level-bound? \var{symbol})}
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\formdef{top-level-bound?}{\categoryprocedure}{(top-level-bound? \var{symbol} \var{env})}
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\returns \scheme{#t} if \var{symbol} is defined as a variable in \var{env}, \scheme{#f} otherwise
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\listlibraries
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\endentryheader
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\noindent
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If \var{env} is not provided, it defaults to the
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value of \scheme{interaction-environment}, i.e., the
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top-level evaluation environment
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(Section~\ref{SECTMISCENVIRONMENTS}).
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This predicate is useful in an interpreter to check for the existence of
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a top-level binding before requesting the value with
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\scheme{top-level-value}.
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\schemedisplay
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(top-level-bound? 'xyz) ;=> #f
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(begin
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(define-top-level-value 'xyz 3)
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(top-level-bound? 'xyz)) ;=> #t
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(define e (copy-environment (interaction-environment)))
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(define-top-level-value 'pi 3.14 e)
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(top-level-bound? 'pi) ;=> #f
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(top-level-bound? 'pi e) ;=> #t
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\endschemedisplay
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%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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\entryheader
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\formdef{top-level-mutable?}{\categoryprocedure}{(top-level-mutable? \var{symbol})}
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\formdef{top-level-mutable?}{\categoryprocedure}{(top-level-mutable? \var{symbol} \var{env})}
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\returns \scheme{#t} if \var{symbol} is mutable in \var{env}, \scheme{#f} otherwise
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\listlibraries
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\endentryheader
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\noindent
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If \var{env} is not provided, it defaults to the
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value of \scheme{interaction-environment}, i.e., the
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top-level evaluation environment
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(Section~\ref{SECTMISCENVIRONMENTS}).
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This predicate is useful in an interpreter to check whether a variable
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can be assigned before assigning it with
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\scheme{set-top-level-value!}.
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\schemedisplay
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(define xyz 3)
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(top-level-mutable? 'xyz) ;=> #t
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(set-top-level-value! 'xyz 4)
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(top-level-value 'xyz) ;=> 4
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(define e (copy-environment (interaction-environment) #f))
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(top-level-mutable? 'xyz e) ;=> #f
|
|
(set-top-level-value! 'xyz e) ;=> \var{exception: xyz is immutable}
|
|
\endschemedisplay
|
|
|
|
|
|
%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
|
|
\entryheader
|
|
\formdef{define-top-level-syntax}{\categoryprocedure}{(define-top-level-syntax \var{symbol} \var{obj})}
|
|
\formdef{define-top-level-syntax}{\categoryprocedure}{(define-top-level-syntax \var{symbol} \var{obj} \var{env})}
|
|
\returns unspecified
|
|
\listlibraries
|
|
\endentryheader
|
|
|
|
\noindent
|
|
\scheme{define-top-level-syntax} is used to establish a top-level binding
|
|
for the identifier named by \var{symbol} to the value of \var{obj}
|
|
in the environment \var{env}.
|
|
The value must be a procedure, the result of a call to
|
|
\scheme{make-variable-transformer}, or the result of a call to
|
|
\scheme{top-level-syntax}.
|
|
If \var{env} is not provided, it defaults to the
|
|
value of \scheme{interaction-environment}, i.e., the
|
|
top-level evaluation environment
|
|
(Section~\ref{SECTMISCENVIRONMENTS}).
|
|
|
|
An exception is raised with condition type \scheme{&assertion} if
|
|
\var{env} is not mutable.
|
|
|
|
A call to \scheme{define-top-level-syntax} is similar to a top-level
|
|
\index{\scheme{define-syntax}}\scheme{define-syntax} form, except that a call to
|
|
\scheme{define-top-level-syntax} need not occur at top-level and
|
|
the identifier for which the binding is to be established can be
|
|
determined at run time, as can the environment.
|
|
|
|
\schemedisplay
|
|
(define-top-level-syntax 'let1
|
|
(syntax-rules ()
|
|
[(_ x e b1 b2 ...) (let ([x e]) b1 b2 ...)]))
|
|
(let1 a 3 (+ a 1)) ;=> 4
|
|
\endschemedisplay
|
|
|
|
\scheme{define-top-level-syntax} can also be used to attach
|
|
to an identifier arbitrary compile-time bindings obtained
|
|
via \scheme{top-level-syntax}.
|
|
|
|
%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
|
|
\entryheader
|
|
\formdef{top-level-syntax}{\categoryprocedure}{(top-level-syntax \var{symbol})}
|
|
\formdef{top-level-syntax}{\categoryprocedure}{(top-level-syntax \var{symbol} \var{env})}
|
|
\returns unspecified
|
|
\listlibraries
|
|
\endentryheader
|
|
|
|
\noindent
|
|
\scheme{top-level-syntax} is used to retrieve the transformer, compile-time
|
|
value, or other compile-time binding to which
|
|
the identifier named by \var{symbol} is bound in the environment \var{env}.
|
|
If \var{env} is not provided, it defaults to the
|
|
value of \scheme{interaction-environment}, i.e., the
|
|
top-level evaluation environment
|
|
(Section~\ref{SECTMISCENVIRONMENTS}).
|
|
All identifiers bound in an environment have compile-time bindings, including
|
|
variables.
|
|
|
|
An exception is raised with condition type \scheme{&assertion} if the
|
|
identifier named by \var{symbol} is not defined as a keyword in \var{env}.
|
|
|
|
\schemedisplay
|
|
(define-top-level-syntax 'also-let (top-level-syntax 'let))
|
|
(also-let ([x 3] [y 4]) (+ x y)) ;=> 7
|
|
|
|
(define foo 17)
|
|
(define-top-level-syntax 'also-foo (top-level-syntax 'foo))
|
|
also-foo ;=> 17
|
|
(set! also-foo 23)
|
|
also-foo ;=> 23
|
|
foo ;=> 23
|
|
\endschemedisplay
|
|
|
|
The effect of the last example can be had more clearly with \scheme{alias}:
|
|
|
|
\schemedisplay
|
|
(define foo 17)
|
|
(alias also-foo foo)
|
|
also-foo ;=> 17
|
|
(set! also-foo 23)
|
|
also-foo ;=> 23
|
|
foo ;=> 23
|
|
\endschemedisplay
|
|
|
|
|
|
%----------------------------------------------------------------------------
|
|
\entryheader
|
|
\formdef{top-level-syntax?}{\categoryprocedure}{(top-level-syntax? \var{symbol})}
|
|
\formdef{top-level-syntax?}{\categoryprocedure}{(top-level-syntax? \var{symbol} \var{env})}
|
|
\returns \scheme{#t} if \var{symbol} is bound as a keyword in \var{env}, \scheme{#f} otherwise
|
|
\listlibraries
|
|
\endentryheader
|
|
|
|
\noindent
|
|
If \var{env} is not provided, it defaults to the
|
|
value of \scheme{interaction-environment}, i.e., the
|
|
top-level evaluation environment
|
|
(Section~\ref{SECTMISCENVIRONMENTS}).
|
|
|
|
All identifiers bound in an environment have compile-time bindings, including
|
|
variables, so this predicate amounts to a bound check, but is more general
|
|
than \scheme{top-level-bound?}, which returns true only for bound variables.
|
|
|
|
\schemedisplay
|
|
(define xyz 'hello)
|
|
(top-level-syntax? 'cons) ;=> #t
|
|
(top-level-syntax? 'lambda) ;=> #t
|
|
(top-level-syntax? 'hello) ;=> #t
|
|
|
|
(top-level-syntax? 'cons (scheme-environment)) ;=> #t
|
|
(top-level-syntax? 'lambda (scheme-environment)) ;=> #t
|
|
(top-level-syntax? 'hello (scheme-environment)) ;=> #f
|
|
\endschemedisplay
|