Update

history.md

@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ This is a brief summary of history of [technology](technology.md) and [computers
 
 { A curious pattern of history is that the civilization -- or maybe rather the dominating superpowers -- are moving to the west, kind of like: middle East -> Greece -> Rome -> Holy Roman Empire -> England/France/Spain -> America. ~drummyfish }
 
-The [Universe](universe.md) began in [singularity](singularity.md) and started to exist with [Big Bang](big_bang.md) almost 14 billion years ago. It went through several epochs during which it changed greatly: first there was the epoch of rapid inflation, up to about 10^-32 seconds, during which it expanded extremely rapidly. After this the fundamental forces (strong, weak, electromagnetic and gravitational) started to become separate, the universe was cooling down, it became transparent and then, after 200 million years, first stars started to form. After another 200 million years first galaxies started to form, including our own Milky Way galaxy. Our [Earth](earth.md) formed some 4.5 billion years ago, along with the Moon. It seems [life](life.md) appeared about 3.8 billions years ago; about 600 million years ago multicellular life formed and 66 million years ago the dinosaurs went extinct, giving opportunity to mammals and eventually to us, humans.
+The [Universe](universe.md) began in [singularity](singularity.md) and started to exist with the [Big Bang](big_bang.md) almost 14 billion years ago. It went through several epochs during which it underwent fantastic changes: first there was the epoch of rapid inflation, up to about 10^-32 seconds, during which it expanded extremely rapidly. After this the fundamental forces (strong, weak, electromagnetic and gravitational) started to become separate, the universe was cooling down, it became transparent and then, after 200 million years, first stars started to form. After another 200 million years first galaxies started to form, including our own Milky Way galaxy. Our [Earth](earth.md) formed some 4.5 billion years ago, along with the [Moon](moon.md) (created by an impact of Earth with a large body called Theia). It seems [life](life.md) appeared about 3.8 billions years ago; about 600 million years ago multicellular life formed and 66 million years ago the dinosaurs went extinct after the devastating impact of the Chicxulub asteroid (probably more than 10 km in diameter), giving opportunity to mammals and eventually to us, humans, who would go on to conquer the planet thereafter.
 
 The earliest known appearance of technology related to humans may likely be the use of **[stone](rock.md) tools** by hominids in Africa some two and a half million years ago (newest encyclopedia Britannica states even 3.3 million years ago) -- this is even before the appearance of modern humans, homo sapiens, that emerged roughly 600000 years ago. Learning to start and control **[fire](fire.md)** was another key invention of the earliest men; this probably happened hundreds of thousands to millions years ago, even before modern humans. Around 8000 BC the **[Agricultural Revolution](agricultural_revolution.md)** happened: this was quite a disaster -- as humans domesticated animals and plants, they had to abandon the comfortable life of hunters and gatherers and started to suffer the life of a farmer, full of extremely hard [work](work.md) in the fields (this can be seen e.g. from their bones). Around 4000 BC sailing ships were used on the Nile river. Permanent farmer settlements led to the establishment of first cities that would later become city states (as the name says -- something between a city and a state, i.e. greatly independent cities with their own laws etc.). Some of the first such cities were Ur and Uruk in Mesopotamia, since around 5000 BC. Primitive **writing** can be traced to about 7000 BC to China. **[Wheel](wheel.md)** was another crucial piece of technology humans invented, it is not known precisely when or where it appeared, but it might have been some time after 5000 BC -- in Ancient Egypt **The Great Pyramid** was built around 2570 BC still without the knowledge of wheel. Around 4000 BC **history starts with first written records**. Humans learned to smelt and use [metals](metal.md) approximately 3300 BC (**Bronze Age**) and 1200 BC (**Iron Age**). **[Abacus](abacus.md)**, one of the simplest [digital](digital.md) devices aiding with computation, was invented roughly around 2500 BC. However people used primitive computation helping tools, such as bone ribs, probably almost from the time they started trading. Babylonians in around 2000 BC were already able to solve some forms of **[quadratic equations](quadratic_equation.md)**.
 
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ In 1712 Thomas Newcomen invented the first widely used **[steam engine](steam_en
 
 In 1792 Clause Chappe invented **[optical telegraph](optical_telegraph.md)**, also called *semaphore*. The system consisted of towers spaced up to by 32 km which forwarded textual messages by arranging big arms on top of the towers to signal specific letters. With this messages between Paris and Strasbourg, i.e. almost 500 km, could be transferred in under half an hour. The system was reserved for the government, however in 1834 it was **[hacked](hack.md)** by two bankers who bribed the tower operators to transmit information about stock market along with the main message (by setting specific positions of arms that otherwise didn't carry any meaning), so that they could get an advantage on the market.
 
-By 1800 Alessandro Volta invented an **electric battery**. In 1827 André-Marie Ampère publishes a further work shedding light on [electromagnetism](electromagneticm.md). After this **[electric telegraph](telegraph.md)** would be worked on and improved by several people and eventually made to work in practice. In 1821 Michael Faraday invented the **[electromotor](electromotor.md)**. Georg Ohm and especially [James Maxwell](maxwell.md) would subsequently push the knowledge of electricity even further.
+By 1800 Alessandro Volta invented an **electric battery**. 1816 is known as **The Year Without Summer** for an unusual, catastrophic event -- now theorized to have been a giant volcanic eruption -- that for many months made the Sun get obscured and decreased temperatures, resulting in large famines. In 1827 André-Marie Ampère publishes a further work shedding light on [electromagnetism](electromagneticm.md). After this **[electric telegraph](telegraph.md)** would be worked on and improved by several people and eventually made to work in practice. In 1821 Michael Faraday invented the **[electromotor](electromotor.md)**. Georg Ohm and especially [James Maxwell](maxwell.md) would subsequently push the knowledge of electricity even further.
 
 In 1822 [Charles Babbage](charles_babbage.md), a fantastic English mathematician, completed the first version of a manually powered **[digital](digital.md) [mechanical](mechanical.md) [computer](computer.md)** called the Difference Engine whose purpose was to help with the computation of [polynomial](polynomial.md) [derivatives](derivative.md) to subsequently create mathematical tables used e.g. in navigation. It was met with success and further development became funded by the government, however difficulties of the construction led to never finishing the whole project. In 1837 Babbage designed a new machine, this time a **[Turing complete](turing_complete.md) general purpose computer**, i.e. allowing for programming with branches and loops, a true marvel of technology. It also ended up not being built completely, but it showed a lot about what computers would be, e.g. it had an [assembly](assembly.md)-like programming language, memory etc. For this computer [Ada Lovelace](ada_lovelace.md) would famously write the Bernoulli number algorithm.
 
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ Also in 1888 probably the **first [video](video.md)** that survived until today
 
 On December 17 1903 the Wright brothers famously performed the **first controlled flight of a motor airplane** which they built, in North Carolina. In repeated attempts they flew as far as 61 meters over just a few seconds.
 
-In 1907 Lee De Forest invented a practically usable **[vacuum tube](vacuum_tube.md)**, an extremely important part usable in electric devices for example as an amplifier or a switch -- this would enable construction of radios, telephones and later even primitive computers. The invention would lead to the [electronic](electronics.md) revolution. Also in 1907 [Belinographe](belinographe.md) was invented, allowing transmission of photographs over telephone lines.
+In 1907 Lee De Forest invented a practically usable **[vacuum tube](vacuum_tube.md)**, an extremely important part usable in electric devices for example as an amplifier or a switch -- this would enable construction of radios, telephones and later even primitive computers. The invention would lead to the [electronic](electronics.md) revolution. Also in 1907 [Belinographe](belinographe.md) was invented, allowing transmission of photographs over telephone lines. In the region of Tunguska in Russia a remarkable event occurred in 1908 -- a meteor (about 55 meters in size) exploded above ground, resulting in gigantic explosion, the largest in recent history.
 
 From 1914 to 1918 there was **[World War I](ww1.md)**.
 
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ In 1924 about 50% of US households own a car.
 
 October 22 1925 witnessed the invention of **[transistor](transistor.md)** by Julius Lilienfeld (Austria-Hungary), a component that would replace vacuum tubes thanks to its better properties, and which would become probably the most essential part of computers. At the time the invention didn't see much attention, it would only become relevant decades later.
 
-In 1931 [Kurt Gödel](kurt_godel.md), a genius mathematician and logician from Austria-Hunagry (nowadays Czech Republic), published revolutionary papers with his [incompleteness theorems](incompleteness.md) which proved that, simply put, mathematics has fundamental limits and "can't prove everything". This led to **[Alan Turing](turing.md)**'s publications in 1936 that nowadays stand as the **foundations of [computer science](compsci.md)** -- he introduced a theoretical computer called the **[Turing machine](turing_machine.md)** and with it he proved that computers, no matter how powerful, will never be able to "compute everything". Turing also predicted the importance of computers in the future and has created several [algorithms](algorithm.md) for future computers (such as a [chess](chess.md) playing program).
+In 1931 [Kurt Gödel](kurt_godel.md), a genius mathematician and logician from Austria-Hunagry (nowadays [Czech](czech.md) Republic), published revolutionary papers on his [incompleteness theorems](incompleteness.md) which [proved](proof.md) that, simply put, mathematics has fundamental limits and "can't prove everything". This led to **[Alan Turing](turing.md)**'s publications in 1936 that nowadays stand as the **foundations of [computer science](compsci.md)** -- he introduced a theoretical computer called the **[Turing machine](turing_machine.md)** and with it he proved that computers, no matter how powerful, will never be able to "compute everything". Turing also predicted the importance of computers in the future and has created several [algorithms](algorithm.md) for future computers (such as a [chess](chess.md) playing program).
 
 In 1938 [Konrad Zuse](konrad_zuse.md), a German engineer, constructed **[Z1](z1.md), the first working electric mechanical [digital](digital.md) partially programmable computer** in his parents' house. It weighted about a ton and wasn't very reliable, but brought huge innovation nevertheless. It was programmed with punched film tapes, however programming was limited, it was NOT [Turing complete](turing_complete.md) and there were only 8 instructions. Z1 ran on a frequency of 1 to 4 Hz and most operations took several clock cycles. It had a 16 word memory and worked with [floating point](float.md) numbers. The original computer was destroyed during the war but it was rebuilt and nowadays can be seen in a Berlin museum. Zuse also soon created what's regarded as the **first [programming language](programming_language.md)**, [Plankalkul](plankalkul.md).
 
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ In 1945 the construction of **the first electronic digital fully programmable co
 
 Among hackers the period between 1961 to 1971 is known as the **Iron Age of computers**. The period spans time since the first minicomputer ([PDP1](pdp1.md)) to the first microprocessor ([Intel 4004](intel4004.md)). This would be followed by so called *elder days*.
 
-On July 20 1969 **first men landed on the Moon** (Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin) during the USA Apollo 11 mission. This tremendous achievement is very much attributed to the cold war in which USA and Soviet Union raced in space exploration. The landing was achieved with the help of a relatively simple on-board computer: Apollo Guidance Computer clocked at 2 MHz, had 4 KiB of [RAM](ram.md) and about 70 KB [ROM](rom.md). The assembly source code of its software is nowadays available online.
+On July 20 1969 **first men landed on the Moon** (Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin) during the USA Apollo 11 mission (see also [moonhoax](moonhoax.md)). This remarkable achievement is now attributed to the pressure of cold war in which USA and Soviet Union raced in space exploration, racing to outpace the competitor in historical achievements and developing more advanced technology for potential military use. The landing was achieved with the help of a relatively [simple](kiss.md) on-board [computer](computer.md): Apollo Guidance Computer clocked at 2 MHz, had 4 KiB of [RAM](ram.md) and about 70 KB [ROM](rom.md). The [assembly](assembly.md) source code of its software is nowadays available online.
 
 Shortly after, on 29 October 1969, another historical event would happen that could be seen as the start of perhaps the greatest technological revolution yet, the **start of the [Internet](internet.md)**. The first letter, "L", was sent over a long distance via **[ARPANET](arpanet.md)**, a new experimental computer [packet switching](packet_switching.md) network without a central node developed by US defense department (they intended to send "LOGIN" but the system crashed). The network would start to grow and gain new nodes, at first mostly universities. The network would become the Internet.